Derivational Morphology

Derivational morphology is a very important class of word-formation dealing with the actual process of creating new lexical items. Whereas most of the morphology thus far discussed concerns taking existing words and modifying them by adding affixes to a stem, derivational morphology describes where these stems come from in the first place.

Throughout this section, affixes and other processes will be described as being either productive or unproductive. Productive processes are those which are still actively at work in the language, that could potentially be applied to many new roots and all speakers would immediately understand the novel meaning of the result. One of the most productive derivational affixes in modern English is -ness, which serves to nominalize an adjective. An unproductive process was likely once able to generate new words, but no longer can; it merely appears as a relic on a number of words, often with a somewhat unclear distribution across words and function. An English example might be -end, seen in words such as “reverend” and “dividend”, but which is virtually useless in terms of coining new expressions.

10.1 Sources of New Words

10.1.1 Creation

The most basic method of word creation is to create a new root from scratch. This is also one of the rarest methods, because new words are rarely made up without any prior base except for onomatopoeia: жиже źíźe “buzz”, яве iáve “woof”. These can then be put through the same internal derivation processes any other roots can, yielding related forms such as жижати źiźáti “buzz” and явати iávati “yap, chatter”.

If the onomatopoeia happens to have an appropriate phonetic structure, part of the word can be reanalyzed as an ending, the most common examples being found in nursery words: мама máma “mother” and тата táta “father”, both of which have been reanalyzed as first declension nouns with the roots *мам- and *тат-.

10.1.2 Borrowing

As the speakers of Novegradian travelled and came in contact with speakers of other languages, they frequently borrowed commonly-used vocabulary, technical terminology, local names for unknown items and new inventions, and local idioms. Some of the primary sources for new loans include Russian, Finnish, Komi, Swedish, French, German, and English.

10.1.2.1 Russian and Other Slavic Languages

Of all the Slavic languages, Novegradian has had the most contact with Russian, and Russian still has significant usage in some parts of the Republic of Novegrad. When couplets appear, the Russian one usually has become more specialized in meaning, although it is not necessarily any more or less formal than the Novegradian equivalent. Common patterns in Russian loans is the pattern CoroC/ColoC/CereC/CeleC (where C represents any consonant) where Novegradian has CraC/ClaC/CreC/CleC, the use of Ё and Е where Novegradian and Е and Ѣ respectively, and the presence of historical palatalized consonants where Novegradian has none.

Loans from other languages sometimes pass through Russian first. This is especially true of Church Slavonic, which Russian borrowed many religious terms from which were then in turn borrowed by Novegradian: воскрезати voskrezáti “resurrect”, соборе sobóre “cathedral”, Пасха Pashá “Pascha (Easter)”, вечерня večérnia “vespers”, иконостасе ikonostáse “ikonostasis”.

10.1.2.2 The Uralic and Baltic Languages

As the Republic expanded, many speakers of local languages came under the rule of Novegrad and began an exchange of vocabulary. The primary contributors to Novegradian vocabulary have been Finnish, Karelian, and Komi, with more limited influence from Nenets, Saami, Estonian, Lithuanian, and Latvian.

The types of words borrowed tend to vary widely. From Karelian and Komi came a number of terms relating to hunting, fishing, and high-latitude forces, as well as many terms for natural phenomena. From Finnish came some of the same, as well as many terms for animals, plants, and nautical terminology. The Baltic languages were the source of some terms dealing with trade. In more recent years Komi and Finnish have once again become major contributors to colloquial speech.

10.1.2.3 French, German, and Swedish

The majority of loans from Swedish, German, and French entered Novegradian after 1600 AD, and largely consist of technical and scientific terminology, as well as other words for things common in the West. French functioned briefly as a prestige language among the nobility in Novegrad, but not as many loans entered everyday language as in Russian. However, other French and German loans did enter Novegradian by way of Russian, primarily in the 19th and 20th centuries.

10.1.2.4 English

English has been the primary source of loans in the 20th century, mostly having to do with technology, food, and modern conveniences.

10.1.3 Calquing

Novegradians have long been proud of their language, and often have turned to calques or partial calques instead of loans when it is possible to decompose the foreign word. Many such cases have since become the only accepted forms and have outcompeted their original loaned counterparts, such as неборѣзе neborě́ze “skyscraper” or вуисопанти vuisopánti “highway” ¹ (both English calques, where скайскрейпре skaiskréipre and хайвее haivéie have fallen into disuse). Others exist in free variation with the loan word, such as презуоне prezuóne “telephone” alongside телевоне televóne.

Doublets often form with terms of scientific studies, for example, where both a foreign and native word exist, although the latter does not necessarily have to be a calque of the first.

10.1.4 Internal Derivation

Finally, the last method of word creation involves using the complex derivational morphology present in Novegradian. This is the primary method of vocabulary expansion and the focus of the rest of this section.

10.2 Suffixial Derivation

10.2.1 Nominalization

10.2.1.1 People from Nouns

Certain suffixes added to nouns indicate a person connected in some way to that noun, most often a resident (if a place) or a practitioner of a trade (if a noun connected to an occupation). These suffixes generally have both a masculine and feminine form, with the masculine one used for mixed or unknown groups.

The suffixes -(е)це -(e)ce (masc) or -(и)ца -(i)ca (fem) attached to a place name indicate someone from that place. This is most frequently used with city names and indefinite geographic terms, and less commonly with country and region names.

With country and region names, the suffix -ѣнинe -ě́nine (with the irregular declension, as described earlier) is used. It is highly productive and causes mutation in the consonant before the suffix, if possible. If the stem ends in vowel + /j/, however, the result can be unpredictable; sometimes another consonant will be inserted, and at other times the /j/ remains in place. All of these forms are epicene, meaning they can agree with either gender as appropriate without an overt morphological change.

Adding -нике/-ника -nike/-nika, -аке/-ака -ake/-aka, -аре/-ара -are/-ara, or -цике/-цика -cike/-cika to a noun usually creates a practitioner of a trade related to the base.

The suffix -(е)це/-(и)ца -(e)ce/-(i)ca can also form professions from a tool.

A profession may be formed from a compound noun denoting some sort of field ending in the gerundive -нье -nje by simply dropping that ending. The feminine equivalent is formed by then adding -(и)ца.

The suffix -(и)ца -(i)ca may be used to form a feminine noun from a masculine noun with no feminine equivalent, usually foreign borrowings: ауторе autóre “author” → ауторца autórca.

Although not a native suffix, it should be noted that the agentive suffix -исте -iste forms its feminine counterpart with -иска -iska, the result of the simplification of an earlier *ист-ка: артисте artíste “(male) artist” → артиска artíska “female artist”.

10.2.1.2 Nouns from Other Nouns

The suffixes -нике/-ника -nike/-nika can be used for inanimate objects as well, indicating something often used together with the base. -Нике is used when the base is masculine or neuter, and -ника if it is feminine.

The suffix -ина -ina has a singulative function, used to create singular nouns from collective nouns or nouns that otherwise lack a singular. It is in origin the feminine counterpart to -ине -ine, as is seen in the -ѣнинe -ě́nine suffix denoting nationality described earlier. It is also used fairly productively to make singular nouns out of collectives with the -ия -ija suffix, though note the spelling.

The suffix -(е)стуо -(e)stuo attached to a noun indicates “the state of being X” (cf. English -hood, -ship) or “the organization composed of X” (cf. -dom, -ment). If the noun ends in the agentive suffix -ителе -ítele, it is replaced by the suffix -я -ia. Mutations can occur.

The suffixes -ике -ike (masc), -ка -ka (fem), and -ко -ko (neut) are in origin diminutives that have acquired a new, fixed meaning. They keep the gender of the noun they were derived from. Mutations frequently occur. In addition, with the feminine and neuter endings only, any /o/ in the preceding syllable shifts to /a/.

Some nouns lack a true plural form, and instead form their “plurals” using the collective suffix -ij-a. In Old Novegradian these collectives were grammatically singular and neuter, though in modern Novegradian are plural. Small vowel alterations can be triggered due to stress changes, as in the case of вагле “coal” below.

Some nouns have both a true plural and a collective plural, with slightly different meanings. Compare, for instance, plural листи “pages, sheets of paper” and collective листия “leaves, foliage”.

The suffix -ишкьа -iśkja added to fruits and vegetables mark a place where that fruit or vegetable is grown. It is limited to fruits well known in the Novegradian-speaking region for the last several hundred years; terms such as ананасишкьа ananásiśkja “pineapple plantation” tend to be ironic or playful. Seemingly irregular forms such as яблонишкьа below actually derive from the name of the tree, rather than the name of the fruit (яблоньа iablónja “apple tree”).

10.2.1.3 People from Adjectives

The suffixes -(е)це (masc) and -(и)ца (fem) are used to create words for people displaying the qualities of the base adjective.

The pejorative suffixes -охе/-оха -ohe/-oha and -ухце/-уха -uhece/-uha are frequently used instead on bases with a negative connotation.

10.2.1.4 Nouns from Adjectives

There are a number of endings for deriving abstract nouns from adjectives, each relating in some way to what the adjective is describing. The ending -ости/-ности -osti/-nosti is default.

Note that when derived from an imperfective active participle, the participial ending -кь- becomes -т- (i.e., it depalatalizes) before the ending -ности: самостоекье samostoiékje “independent” (lit. “self-standing”) → самостоетности samostoiétnosti “independence”.

The suffix -ота -ota describes a physical aspect.

The stressed ending -ия -ijá derives from an older collective form and means “a collection of things that are X” (or, less commonly, “thing that is X”, though it remains morphologically plural).

The last two of the above, страве and боғате, use the collective suffix to form a simple nominalization. These are historically compounds, the former related to дрѣво “tree” and the latter to боғе “God”.

The suffixes -(о)те -(o)te (masc), -ата -ata (fem), and -ото -oto (neut) form nouns that display the quality of the adjective, both animate and inanimate. They are derived from the adjective modifying a declining form of the old demonstrative то to “that” that have since been reanalyzed as regular nouns: красноте krásnote “handsome man”, красната krásnata “beautiful woman”.

10.2.1.5 People from Verbs

A person can be derived from a verb stem using the same sort of endings nouns use: -(е)це/-(и)ца and (less commonly) -аре/-ара, as well as the suffixes -теле/-делика -tele/-délika and the more colloquial -исе/-иска -ise/-iska (from Komi).

10.2.1.6 Nouns from Verbs

Using a verb stem alone, with no ending, creates a noun associated with the verb, although the sense of the nominalization varies dramatically from verb to verb. Both perfective and imperfective verbs may be used.

There is a tendency, though not an absolute one, to stress any verbal prefixes, such as о- and vo- above.

Resultatives are generally formed the same way, although can only be formed from perfective verbs. The endings theme vowel + -нье -nje or -ни -ni will sometimes be seen for collective resultatives, but are no longer productive.

A few nominalizations are simply irregular: лубити lubíti “love” → лубова lubóva “love” ² , пѣти pě́ti → пѣшне pě́śne “song” ³ , жити źíti “live” → житени źíteni “life” ⁴ .

There are many suffixes used for turning a verb into an abstract noun. The most common is the gerundive -нье -nje (formed identically to the perfective participle, but with -нь- instead of -н-). Less common are -а -a and -ба -ba.

Verbs that form their perfective participles with -т- rather than -н- form gerundives with -кь- instead of -нь-: накрити nakríti “serve (a meal)” → накрикье nakríkje “course (of a meal)”.

The suffix -ти -ti is a non-productive nominalizer historically related to the infinitive ending. Such nouns are often similar to or identical to the infinitives of the verbs from which they are derived. Verbs whose roots end in /k g/ take the suffix -кьи -kji as in the infinitive, but without the preceding glide.

The endings -оке -oke, -гло -glo, and -ане -áne turn a verb into some sort of tool or instrument used to perform that action. -Ане -áne also frequently derives nouns from other nouns.

The endings -иша -iśa and -ишкье -iśkje (neut) mark the location where something takes place. The latter is limited to open spaces, but less common and not predictable.

The suffix -лньа -lnja, added to the past-tense stem of a verb, is similar to the above, but most commonly derives names of rooms. If the past tense is irregular, generally this form will be irregular as well (cf. ѣдалньа below, past tense ѣгле).

10.2.1.7 Nouns from Phrases

The suffix -ка -ka is sometimes used to turn common multi-word expressions into a single noun. Such nouns tend to appear in the plural. Sometimes they are also limited to set expressions, as in the case of the second example below.

10.2.1.8 Diminutives and Pejoratives

Diminutives in Novegradian, as in other Slavic languages, are used very frequently. However, their formation can be quite complicated.

The most basic suffixes are -ике -ike (masc), -ка -ka (fem), and -ко -ko (neut), preserving the original gender of the noun. These cause palatalization of the last consonant of the stem if it ends in a velar consonant, or lenition if it otherwise ends in a plosive. If the vowel preceding the feminine or neuter endings is /o/, it becomes /a/ in the diminutive.

However, there are many alternative forms, to the point that any word can have multiple diminutive forms, sometimes even five or more. Frequent variants include doubling (-ишике, -ишка, -ишко -iśike, -iśka, -iśko) or even tripling (-ишицеке, -ишицка, -ишицко -iśiceke, -iśicka, -iśicko), an /n/ suffix (-ене, -ена, -ено -ene, -ena, -eno), an /sʲ/ (-еше, -еша, -ешо -eśe, -eśa, eśo), other vowel variants (-еке, -оке -eke, -oke), and numerous combinations of the above.

Pejoratives are easier to form, though still are not entirely regular. They are created using the suffixes -охе/-оха -ohe/-oha, -ахе/-аха -ahe/-aha, and -ухе/-уха -uhe/-uha. The suffixes do not correspond to gender. When used with a noun that ends in -(е)це/-(и)ца, however, the pejorative must be placed before these agenitive suffixes.

Note that these forms are distinct from those used for personal names, although there is some overlap.

10.2.1.9 Foreign Suffixes

A number of foreign suffixes from Western European languages have entered Novegradian starting from around the 18th century, and have gained varying levels of productivity.

The most productive foreign suffix is -аця -acia or -ася -asia, equivalent to English -tion. The former was the original form (borrowed from German or Polish) and the latter a later one (borrowed from Swedish and perhaps influenced by French), though colloquially more and more nouns in -аця are switching to -ася, which better fits Novegradian phonotactics. Along with -аця is -изме -izme, equivalent to English -ism.

Less common suffixes include the agenitives -исте -iste (cf. English -ist), -оре -ore (cf. English -or), -аре -are (cf. English -arian), and -аже -aźe (cf. English -age, from French).

10.2.2 Adjectivalization

10.2.2.1 Adjectives from Nouns

The two most common adjective types in Novegradian are those formed with the -н- -n- suffix and those formed with the -ск- -sk- suffix.

Н-suffix forms are usually relative (non-comparable), but can frequently be qualitative (comparable) as well. They generally mean ‘possessing the qualities of X’. This and other suffixes are added to the noun stem, adding an epenthetic vowel if needed, and then declined with normal adjective endings. The last consonant of the root is prone to mutation if it is a velar consonant.

The behavior of root-final /c/ before the adjectival -н- is somewhat complex. If it derives from an historical *kt, it becomes /k/: нокьи nókji “night” (Common Slavic *noktь) → нокне nókne “night(time)”. If it derives from an historical *tj, it becomes /t/: тишикьа tíśikja “thousand” (Common Slavic *tysętja) → тишитне tíśitne “thousandth”. Root-final /ɟ/ always becomes /d/ since it always falls into this second class. The palatal fricatives /ç/ and /ʝ/ are unaffected, however.

Ск-suffix forms are almost always relative, and are used most often to turn a place name into an adjective. This is the most productive form of adjective derivation.

The definite suffixes -skei/-skoie/-skaia are often used in place names.

It is not always predictable what will happen to the final consonant or vowel of a noun when the -ск- suffix is added. This is highly dependent on both the ending of the noun and when the adjective form first appeared in the language.

For first declension nouns, there are two options. Most commonly, /e/ is inserted between the root and the suffix, with no palatalization: Вољга Vółga “Volga” → вољгеске vółgeske. Many other nouns, however, use the older suffix -ine-, again with no palatalization: Вишера Víśera “Víśera” → вишеринеске viśeríneske. This form is most common for adjectivalizing local place names. For this reason, overuse of -ine- tends to sound “rustic”.

Second declension nouns, however, almost universally use -ine-: Вагря Vágria “Hungary” → огринеске ogríneske. Apparent exceptions, such as сумеске súmeske for “Finnish” when “Finland” is Сумя Súmia, are usually not directly related. In this case, the example is derived from an older name for Finland, Суме Súme.

Third and fourth declension nouns can basically be divided into three phases, based on when the adjective first came into use. The oldest words (roughly prior to 1100 AD) generally add /e/ to the root and show no palatalization: Новеграде Novegráde “Novegrad” → новеградеске novegrádeske. Middle period nouns (roughly 1100 to 1800) use the /e/ suffix as well, but the root ends in /t d k g x/, they will generally palatalize: Цахя Cáhia “Czech [Republic]” → цашеске cáśeske. This is largely due to Russian and Church Slavonic influence. New period nouns (roughly post 1800) have returned to the original system of /e/ without palatalization: Ираке Iráke “Iraq” → иракеске irákeske.

Fifth declension nouns almost always use the /e/ suffix without palatalization: Дони Dóni “Denmark” → донеске dóneske. However, sometimes the connecting suffix is /i/, but this is rare and usually a regionalism.

There are no sixth declension nouns that take the -ск- suffix.

However, there are certain root-final consonants that trigger exceptions to the above rules, no matter the declension of the noun:

• /j/: Roots ending in /j/ have no connecting morpheme between the root and the -ск- suffix: Кидае Kidáie “China” → кидайске kidáiske.
• /ij/: Roots ending in /ij/ follow the same rule as above, but orthographic -ий- is usually just pronounced /i/ (or colloquially, /aj/): Англия Ánglija → английске anglíjske.
• /β/: Root-final /β/ almost always reduces to /w/ with no connecting morpheme: Нева Nevá → неуске néuske.
• /s/: Roots ending in /s/ generally have no connecting morpheme. Orthographic -сс- is pronounced simply as /s/: Пруся Prúsia “Prussia” → прусске prússke. There is some variation here, however: second declension nouns whose roots end in /s/ sometimes may still take -ine- (and прузинеске pruzíneske for “Prussian” may be seen in a number of place names).

A small set of nouns can take an adjective ending without any suffix (e.g., злато zláto “gold” → злате zláte “golden”), but this is relatively uncommon unless there is some sort of prefix involved as well.

The endings -ов- -ov- and -оу-н- -oun-, derived from the old genitive ending still seen in the partitive plural, form relative/non-comparable adjectives (cf. English -ic, -al). Note that fourth declension bases will generally take -ев- -ev- and -еу-н- -eun- instead.

-ив- -iv- forms qualitative adjectives, and carries roughly the same meaning as English -ful. -аљ-н- -ałn- (from English -al) is generally only found in loanwords. -ице-ск- -icesk- and the reduced form -е-ск- -esk- are used when the root ends in /s z ts dz/ derive from a combination of English -ic with the Slavic -sk-, but have since spread to almost any abstract noun ending in -(и)я by analogy, even if the English equivalent never had -ic (e.g., “information” below).

The suffix -ив- -iv- is also used productively to derive adjectives from abstract nominals that end in -ости: милости mílosti “mercy” → милостиве milóstive “merciful, gracious”.

The suffix -ист- -íst- means “full of”, but more literally than -ив-. It is somewhat literary, however, having been more or less completely replaced by the prefix много- mnogo-, described later: гора góra “mountain” → гористе goríste “mountainous”.

The suffixes -ат- -át- and -овит- -ovit- are a non-productive means of making adjectives out of concrete nominals. They are only found on a handful of words, such as роге róge “horn” → рогате rogáte “horned”, or плоде plóde “fruit, offspring” → плодовите plodovíte “fruitful, currently producing a great quantity of fruit”.

The suffix -оват- -ovát- weakens an adjective, meaning “rather X” or “X-ish”: шинье śínje “blue” → шиньовате śinjováte “bluish”.

The suffix -осн- -osn-, of Komi origin, means “covered/coated/spattered with X”: крев krév “blood” → кревосне krevósne “blood-spattered”, цервене cérvene “red” → цервеносне cervenósne “spotty red”.

The suffix -ѣн- -ěn- means “made of”, and is attached to bases of various materials: лене léne “flax” → ленѣне léněne “linen”, мѣди mě́di “copper (noun)” → мѣдѣне mě́děne “copper (adj)”.

The suffix -ушн- -uśn- is a pejorative, forming adjectives with negative connotations from nouns. It is historically related to the nominal pejorative suffix -ух-, but can be applied to nouns that never take this suffix as well: клапе klápe “boy” → клапушне hlapúśne “boyish”, дѣвушка dě́vuśka “girl” → дѣвушне děvúśne “girlish”, старце stárce “old man” → старушне starúśne “senile”, суиньа suínja “wild pig” → суиньушне suinjúśne “piggish”.

The prefix бес- bes- means “without”, much like the English suffix -less. Note that when it is added to adjectives with the -n- suffix, they generally tend to switch to the -ov-/-ev- suffix: соунце sóunce “sun” → солнецне solnécne “sunny” → бессоунцеве bessóunceve “sunless”; вѣтре vě́tre “wind” → вѣтрене vě́trene “windy” → бесвѣтреве besvě́treve “windless”.

Many animals have two adjective forms, although their meanings are identical. The adjective endings are allowed to be added directly onto the root of the animal with a -j- intermediary (which is frequently absorbed by the consonant before it), so that both j-suffix and n-suffix animal terms will be seen. The former were originally descended from true possessive adjectives, which have largely been lost as a productive force in Novegradian. Quite a few have become extremely irregular, such as тоце “avian” below (from Common Slavic *pъtъk-j-ъ). The j-suffix forms are increasingly rare outside of technical fields such as taxonomy or biology.

Adjectivalization of foreign noun stems can often take multiple different forms, resulting in effective duplets depending on various ideosyncratic morphological and semantic criteria. For instance, the noun мангонка mangónka “mango” has two simple adjectival counterparts: мангове mángove and мангосове mangósove “of or relating to mangos”. The former represents the addition of the suffix -ov to the base *mang-; the latter contains an epenthetic -s- inserted to preserve the stem-final vowel (i.e., *mango- + -ov-), with the -s- perhaps being loaned from the English plural form “mangos”, or by analogy with other tropical plants such as кокосе kókose “coconut” and its adjectival form кокосове kokósove. In contrast, the noun метро metró “metro, subway” only has one adjectivalization, метрове metróve, as there is no closely associated word from which to draw an epenthetic consonant.

10.2.2.2 Adjectives from Verbs

Adjectives can be derived from verbs, but generally not without the help of some sort of adjectival prefix. The verb root is isolated, the prefix added, and then this stem is otherwise treated as though it were a noun, using the same sort of endings (-ов-, -ив-, -н-). See the “Noun and Adjective Prefixes” section below for more information. The three verbal participles are also used to modify nouns, and do not require any sort of additional prefixes.

There is one exception, however, known as the “necessitive participle”, though despite the name it is generally not viewed as a true participle by Indo-Europeanists. It is formed by adding the suffix -телне -telne to the infinitive stem. If the infinitive stem ends in /t d s z k g/ (i.e., the infinitive ends in -сти -sti or -йкьи -ikji), then the suffix -ителне -ítelne is used, with palatalization of /k g/ to /ts dz/. These adjectives have the meaning “that must be Xed” for transitive verbs and “that must X” for intransitive verbs:

• рѣѕити rědzíti “say” → рѣѕителне rědzítelne “that must be said”
• видѣти víděti “see” → видѣтелне vidě́telne “that must be seen”
• жити źíti “live” → жителне źítelne “that must live”
• плайкьи pláikji “cry” → плацителне placítelne “that must cry”
• класти klásti “bury” → кладителне kladítelne “that must be buried”
• исти ísti “go” → идителне idítelne “that must go”

When negated with the prefix не- ne-, the necessitive participle indicates improperness or impossibility:

• нерѣѕителне nerědzítelne “that must not be said”
• невидѣтелне nevidě́telne “that must not be seen”
• нежителне neźítelne “that must not live”
• неплацителне neplacítelne “that must not cry”
• некладителне nekladítelne “that must not be buried”
• неидителне nejidítelne “that must not go”

The passive imperfective participle also has one additional idiomatic function. It can indicate possibility, much like the English suffix -able/-ible: видиме vidíme “visible”, дадоме dádome “givable”, etc.

10.2.2.3 Adjective Diminutives

Diminutive forms of adjectives also exist, which generally imply a sense of closeness or ‘cuteness’, and so are particularly common when speaking with children, or when modifying affectionately diminutive nouns. They are formed using the suffixes -енк- -enk-, -инк- -ink-, -еник- -enik-, and -иник- -inik- attached to an adjectival stem. These diminutives cannot be used with adjectives already containing the suffixes -n- or -sk-, but are otherwise quite productive. Sometimes other suffixes are dropped when diminutive endings are added, as in слазке below.

Some example diminutives:

10.2.2.4 Complex Adjectives

Novegradian makes use of a small set of “complex adjectives”, two adjectives modifying a single noun that both decline, but are written as a single hyphenated word without any sort of conjunction, that take on new meanings separate from those of the two adjectives forming them. These include старе-младе stáre-mláde “of all ages” (lit. “old-young”), диляне-краске diliáne-kráske “of uneven length” (lit. “long-short”), шинье-цервене śínje-cérvene “multicolored, motley” (lit. “blue-red”). The two adjectives composing each complex adjective are opposites or near-opposites, and the new form represents a variation everywhere in between the two.

10.2.3 Verbalization

Any part of speech can generally be converted into a verb by taking the root and treating that as a verbal root, then assigning it a conjugation class, theme vowel, etc. The first and second conjugations are used for most such derivations, although the third is occasionally seen as well. If the root is in the second or third conjugation and ends in a consonant prone to mutation, that consonant will likely mutate due to analogy with other verbs, even if the root is foreign. For this reason, many foreign roots end up in the non-mutating first conjugation.

Simple verbalization can only be done with a handful of nouns, but is productive with many adjectives, albeit only qualitative ones. Most other verbalization requires some sort of prefix, which will be discussed later. The suffix -ov- in the first conjugation, however, is extremely productive for converting nouns into verbs, as in командовати komandováti above.

The suffix -изир- -izir- (cf. English -ize) acts similarly to -овати, but always has a causative and transformative sense. It is only used with foreign roots. The ending -изирати is third declension.

There are a few general tendencies that can be noted regarding the conjugations that derived verbs are placed in. The second conjugation (with -i- as the infinitive thematic vowel), for example, tends to indicate some sort of transformation or causation (as in сухе súhe “dry” → сушити súśiti “dry, make dry”). The third conjugation ending -нати -nati, known as a ‘punctual’, marks a single instanteous action, especially physical ones, such as крикнати kriknáti “shout (pf)” and метнати metnáti “hurl, strike (pf)”. Nearly all verbs ending in -нати are perfective, since after all a single instantaneous action can’t be progressive or prolonged.

There are also a few pairs of verbs affixes (namely -i-/-na- and -i-/-ě-) worth noting that no longer have productive force, but nevertheless are prominant.

A number of transitive second conjugation verbs (i.e., having the suffix -i- in the infinitive) have intransitive counterparts with -na-: гашити gáśiti “extinguish, put out [a flame, etc.]”, гаснати gasnáti “go out”; меражити meráźiti “freeze (tr)”, морзнати morznáti “freeze (intr), go numb”; миғцити miğcíti “soften (tr)”, миғнати miğnáti “soften (intr), get soft”.

Several causative verbs in -i- also have stative counterparts in -ě- (third conjugation). This is especially common with adjective bases: шиньити śinjíti “make blue”, шиньѣти śinjě́ti “appear blue”, желенити źeleníti “make green”, желенѣти źeleně́ti “appear green, be envious”.

Although these patterns are no longer productive, they have had sporadic influence on other verbs as a result of analogy. For example, the former relationship has been applied to the verb омѣти omě́ti “know how to” to create the new verb омити omíti “teach how to”.

10.2.4 Adverbialization

Novegradian, unlike many other Slavic languages, has a distinct adverbial form, formed from adjectives by adding -ѣ -ě to the stem. Many nouns in the dative-instrumental case may also take on an adverbial function. When dealing with adjectives derived from place names, the prefixed prefix на- na- must be added, or н- n- if it begins with a vowel.

10.3 Prefixial Derivation

10.3.1 Noun and Adjective Prefixes

The following prefixes are attached directly onto a noun or adjective to change the meaning, in much the same way noun and adjective prefixes work in English. Many adjectivalizations require some sort of prefix related to the meaning—for example, приглубе priglúbe “deep” requires the prefix при-, meaning “touching” or “close to”, the intention here being “close to the bottom”; *глубе alone has no meaning. Similarly, the prefixless *видеце (from “see” and the agentive suffix) is meaningless, but with a prefix, безвидеце bezvídece becomes “blind man” (without-see-agent). All of these prefixes are highly productive.

It should be noted that there is a great deal of overlap between substantive and verbal prefixes, with many identical forms, although often different meanings. The distinction between the two is further confused by the ability of prefixed verbs to form derived nouns and adjectives that still bear a verbal prefix. For this reason, this section will avoid deverbal forms as much as possible.

10.3.1.1 Без-

The most basic sense of без- is “without”, corresponding roughly with English -less. Before voiceless consonants, it takes the form бес- bes-. With adjectives, it generally forces the suffix -ов-/-ев-. Abstract nouns will usually acquire the collective suffix -ия unless another abstract marker (e.g., -ости) is present.

It can be added to a small set of primitive nouns referring to body parts to form adjectives without need of a suffix, as in безроке below.

Examples:

• безвидеце bezvídece “blind man” (← видѣти víděti “see”)
• безнадѣгьове beznadě́gjove “hopeless” (← надѣгьа nadě́gja “hope”)
• бесшилия besśilijá “weakness” (← шила śíla “strength”)
• бескараљности beskaráłnosti “impunity” (← караљне karáłne “punishable”)
• безроке bezróke “armless” (← рока róka “arm, hand”)

10.3.1.2 Вмес-

The prefix вмес- means “between” or “among”, often corresponding to English inter-.

Examples:

• вмеснародне vmesnaródne “international” (← народе naróde “nation”)
• вмессужѣдне vmessuźě́dne “communal” (← cужѣде suźě́de “neighbor”)
• вмесоблостина vmesoblóstina “interregional highway” (← облости óblosti “region”)

10.3.1.3 Во-

The prefix во- means “in”, “into”, or “inside”, corresponding with certain functions of English in-, as well as most functions of intra-.

Examples:

• воидрове vojidróve “intranuclear” (← идро idró “nucleus”)
• вовенне vovénne “intravenous” (← вена véna “vein”)
• вовозе vóvoze “import” (← вожити vóźiti “transport”)

10.3.1.4 Вонѣ-

The basic sense of вонѣ- is “outside”, much like English “extra-”. Befores stems beginning with a vowel, it reduces to вон- von-.

Examples:

• вонѣклѣсцене voněklě́scene “extracellular” (← клѣска klě́ska “cell”)
• вонѣкрайске voněkráiske “foreign” (← крае kráie “boundary”)

10.3.1.5 До-

The prefix до- means “before” or “up to”, and corresponds to certain senses of English pre-. Formerly, it could only be used with adjectives, with пред- pred- filling in the same role for nouns; nowadays, however, до- is frequently used with both nouns and adjectives, and forms with пред- are gradually disappearing.

Examples:

• доисторицеске dojistoríceske “prehistoric” (← исторя istória “history”)
• довоенне dovoiénne “prewar, antebellum” (← война voiná “war”)
• доплоне doplóne “full to the brim” (← плоне plóne “full”)
• дожитенне doźítenne “lifelong” (← житени źíteni “life”)

10.3.1.6 За-

За- means “after” or “beyond”/”behind”, in both spatial and temporal senses. This can be metaphorically extended to mean a sudden appearance, as though coming out from behind something. The first sense closely corresponds to English post-; the others do not have a clear equivalent.

Examples:

• загорне zagórne “beyond the mountains” (← гора góra “mountain”)
• завоенне zavoiénne “postwar” (← война voiná “war”)
• захоте záhote “desire, craving” (← хотѣти hótěti “want”)

10.3.1.7 Кољ-

The prefix кољ- means “around” or “surrounding”, corresponding very closely to English circum- or peri-. For the most part it is not used in native coinages, but rather only in calques of scientific or technical terms from other languages, and only forms adjectives. It has the variant form кол- kol- before a stem beginning with a front vowel or /j/.

Examples:

• кољжемне kołźémne “circumterrestrial” (← жемя źémia “land”)
• кољљунне kołłúnne “circumlunar” (← љуна łuná “moon”)
• кољшердецне kołśerdécne “pericardial” (← шерце śérce “heart”)

10.3.1.8 Много-

The prefix много- fairly transparently means “many”; semantically, it is similar to English poly- or multi-, but is much more frequent. This is the closest productive equivalent to the -ist- adjective suffix seen in Russian and other Slavic languages, which is disappearing in Novegradian. Before stems beginning in /k/ or /g/, it contracts to мно- mno-.

Examples:

• многорокове mnogorókove “many-armed” (← рока róka “arm”)
• многорне mnogórne “mountainous” (← гора góra “mountain”)
• многоворне mnogovórne “talkative” (← говорити govoríti “talk”)
• многедажне mnogedáźne “multistory, high-rise” (← едаже iedáźe “floor, story”)

10.3.1.9 На-

На- means “on top of”. It has no clear English equivalent.

Examples:

• навоцнике navócnike “contact lens” (← око óko “eye”)
• нанижника naníźnika “book cover” (← нига níga “book”)
• настуљне nastúłne “desktop (adj)” (← стуље stúłe “table”)

10.3.1.10 Над-

The prefix над- means “over” or “above”, corresponding to the English prefixes super- and over-. When the stem begins with a plosive consonant, it lenites to наз- naz-.

However, this prefix does not have the sense of excess than English over- can have (e.g., “overstep”); nor the sense of “to a great degree” that super- can have (e.g., “superconductivity”), which is handled by the compound пренад-. It covers strictly a literal sense of “over”.

Examples:

• наджемне nadźémne “overhead, elevated” (← жемя źémia “land”)
• назкадовуше nazkadóvuśe “overseer” (← кадовуше kadóvuśe “guard”)
• назгуѣздене nazguě́zdene “heavely (poet.)” (← гуѣзда guě́zda “star”)

10.3.1.11 Не-

The prefix не- performs simple negation, like English un-, non- or a-. With qualitative adjectives, however, it tends to be more of a mild negation, somewhat like English “good” and the mild negative “not good” as opposed to “bad”.

Examples:

• невидне nevídne “invisible” (← видѣти víděti “see”)
• невовисяљне nevovisiáłne “unofficial” (← овисяљне ovisiáłne “official”)
• недобре nedóbre “not good” (← добре dóbre “good”)

10.3.1.12 Па-

The prefix па- does not translate easily into English. When used in a spatial sense, it means “right before” or “immediately by/along”. When used more abstractly, it indicates insufficiency (particularly in the sense of “failure to be sufficient” as opposed to “not yet sufficient”) or more broadly something that is an alternative or secondary, inferior version of the base stem (though not necessarily with negative connotations). It also often drags stress either onto or toward itself, though this isn’t a universal tendency.

Examples:

• павобѣдоке pavóbědoke “brunch, morning snack” (← обѣде óběde “lunch”)
• паежерия paiéźerija “lakeshore” (← ежеро iéźero “lake”)
• павецере pavécere “twilight” (← вецере vécere “evening”)
• пажемка paźémka “strawberry” (← жемя źémia “land”)
• пакусе pákuse “aftertaste” (← (во)кусе (vó)kuse “taste”)
• павука pávuka “pseudoscience” (← (на)вука (na)vúka “science”)

10.3.1.13 По-

The prefix по-, though very common with verbs and deverbals, is not very common with other nouns and adjectives. It most commonly is used to mean “along” various geographical features. It also has very limited use in the temporal/benefactive sense “for the occasion of”/”upon”.

Examples:

• побрѣжне pobrě́źne “coastal” (← брѣге brě́ge “beach”)
• Поневия Ponevijá “region around the Nevá River” (← Нева Nevá “Nevá River”)
• посмортене posmórtene “upon one’s death” ⁵ (← сморти smórti “death”)

10.3.1.14 Под-

The prefix под- means “under”, both physically and metaphorically. It also often indicates some sort of alternate to the base stem. Before stems beginning with a plosive, it lenites to поз- poz-.

Examples:

• подводне podvódne “underwater” (← вода vóda “water”)
• подюданьеве podiudánjeve “below freezing” (← юданье iudánje “freezing”)
• подходе pódhode “back entrance” (← ходити hóditi “go, walk”)
• подиѣзде pódiězde “back route” (← ѣздити iě́zditi “go by vehicle”)

10.3.1.15 Пра-

The prefix пра- means “preceeding” or “ancestral”, and corresponds very closely to English proto- or, in the context of people, great-. Other than this last sense, it is generally a technical term. The prefix also tends to be stressed equally or nearly equally as much as the stem; for this reason, it was for a long time written hyphenated, though doing so is generally considered dated nowadays.

Examples:

• прагуѣзда práguě́zda “proto-star” (← гуѣзда guě́zda “star”)
• прагерманеске prágermáneske “proto-Germanic” (← германеске germáneske “German”)
• прадѣда prádě́da “great grandfather” (← дѣда dě́da “grandfather”)

10.3.1.16 Пре-

With noun and adjective bases, пре- means “across”. This corresponds most closely with English trans-.

Examples:

• прешибиреске preśibíreske “trans-Siberian” (← Шибире Śibíre “Siberia”)
• преятлантицеске preiatlantíceske “trans-Atlantic” (← атлантицеске atlantíceske “Atlantic”)

10.3.1.17 Пред-

The prefix пред- means “before” when forming nouns. It is falling out of use (except on deverbals) as nouns formed with до- have been gaining acceptance. For example, the only acceptable form for “prehistory” was once предисторя predistória, but now the form доисторя dojistória is far more common.

10.3.1.18 При-

The prefix при- means, roughly, “adjoining”, “close”, or “toward”. It does not have a close English equivalent, although ad- approximates the first sense. However, при- is much more productive in Novegradian than ad- is in English.

Examples:

• примореске primóreske “maritime” (← море móre “sea”)
• притоке prítoke “tributary [river]” (← токе tóke “flow”)
• притољке prítołke “aftershock” (← тољке tółke “tremor”)

10.3.1.19 Проти-

The prefix проти- means “against”, and behaves much like English anti- or sometimes counter-. Before stems beginning with a vowel, it becomes против- protiv-.

Examples:

• противирусне protivírusne “antiviral” (← вирусе víruse “virus”)
• протирѣѕия protirě́dzija “contradiction” (← рѣѕити rědzíti “say”)
• противоздушне protivozdúśne “anti-aircraft” (← воздушне vozdúśne “aerial”)

10.3.1.20 Со-

The prefix со- means “with” or “together”, corresponding to English co- or con-.

Examples:

• соврѣменне sovrě́menne “modern” (← врѣмено vrě́meno “time”)
• согуѣздия soguědzijá “constellation” (← гуѣзда guě́zda “star”)
• сотоке sótoke “confluence” (← токе tóke “flow”)

10.3.1.21 Compound Prefixes

Novegradian also employs three compound substantive prefixes, formed from two of the previously-discussed unary prefixes: пренад- prenad-, недо- nedo-, and напроти- naproti-.

Пренад- corresponds strongly to English super- when used in the sense of “to a great extent”: преназпроводимости prenazprovodímosti “superconductivity” (← проводимости provodímosti “conductivity”).

Недо- marks insufficiency like па-; however, while па- suggests failure to be sufficient, недо- is more neutral, often signifying that something simply is not yet sufficient. Compare, for instance, паросуие párosuije “underdevelopment” (suggesting mismanagement) versus недоросуие nedorosuíje “underdevelopment” (suggesting the process of development has only just begun).

Напроти- denotes opposition or rivalry, and is often used to calque English counter-: напротиреволуця nàprotirevolúcia “counterrevolution” (← револуця revolúcia “revolution”).

10.3.1.22 Notes on Formation

Whenever a prefix that must end in a vowel is added to a base that begins with a vowel, a prothetic consonant must be added to prevent hiatus. This is entirely dependent on the second vowel. If it is /a e i æ/, the consonant is /j/. If it is /o u ɨ/, the consonant is /β/. In the case of /e i æ u/, there is no visible orthographic change.

When a prefix is added to a root that has undergone the historical TorT or TolT sound change (thus having a modern Novegradian form CraC or ClaC, where “C” represents any consonant), the /a/ is shifted to /o/: граде gráde “city” → пригроде prígrode “suburb”.

There are two other prefixes that appear in many common nouns, though are no longer productive: су-/са- su-/sa- and о-/об- o-/ob-. The former derives from Proto-Slavic *sǫ-, so the vowel depends on the dominant stress pattern. It generally indicates some sort of connection, close relationship, or accompaniment: самраке sámrake “twilight” (from мраке mráke “darkness, gloom”), сурва survá “blizzard” (from ровати rováti “tear up”), сутма sutmá “shadow” (from тема temá “darkness”), сужѣде suźě́de “neighbor” (from шѣдѣти śědě́ti “sit”). The latter (basically *ob-, but frequently reducing to just *o-) means “around”. When it is prefixed to a word beginning in /β/, the /β/ always drops: власти vlásti “authority, rule” → облости óblosti “region, province”. All of these words have largely been dissociated from their original bases.

When a numeral is prefixed to a noun or adjective, it appears in its genitive form minus any final consonants: довуногате dovunogáte “bipedal, two-legged”. If the numeral does not decline, it is simply added as-is: столѣтия stolětijá “century, centennial” ⁶ . The numeral “one” always prefixes as an adjective with a neutral -o- ‘linking morpheme’ (i.e., as едно- iedno-). The same rules apply to the numeral пољ pół “half”, which prefixed as the genitive пољу- połu-.

10.3.2 Place Names

There are five prefixes commonly used to form region names, all based on a more specific geographic term. All region names formed this way must take the collective suffix -ия -ija, which triggers palatalization of velar consonants only.

The prefix по- po- with a place name means “region along”. It is particularly common with river names, but can also be used with other generic geographic features that are linear, such as “road” or “railroad”. The prefix па- pa- is similar, but expresses a greater immediacy.

The prefix при- pri- does the same, but marks the area along a coastline.

Под- pod- (or поз- poz- before plosive consonants) marks the region around a city.

За- za- is used with names of or terms referring to physical features, most often mountain ranges, to mean “land beyond”, much like trans- may be used in English.

До- do- may occasionally be used to mean “land on this side of” (English cis-), but this is rare: Докауказия Dokaukázija “Ciscaucasia”.

10.3.3 Verb Prefixes

Verbs share many of the same prefixes nouns and adjectives use, although they function somewhat differently. Verbal prefixes in Novegradian are in many cases roughly equivalent to phrasal verbs in English, allowing a single verb root to spawn a wide variety of related verbs. These prefixes are highly productive, especially for verbs of motion.

The prefixes from which the perfective form of a verb is chosen are the same as the derivational prefixes. Where по- may turn one verb perfective, for another it may be solely derivational.

Note, though, that all verbs created through prefixial derivation are strictly speaking perfective. Most such verbs then back-derive an imperfective form using the suffix -ов-/-ав- -ov-/-av-: дати dáti (impf) → содати sodáti (pf); предати predáti (pf) → предавати predaváti (impf). Almost all back-derived imperfectives are first conjugation; the one exception is -давати, which is third.

A smaller set of verbs, all second conjugation, derive imperfective forms by shifting directly to the first conjugation without the aid of an overt suffix. If the root-final consonant can undergo palatalization, it will; in other words, /s(ʲ) z(ʲ) t d n p b m β/ → /ç ʝ c ɟ ɲ pl bl ml wl/, with some allowances for stress-related voicing. Examples: вуишити vuíśiti “raise” → вуиғьати vuiğjáti, прицинити priciníti “cause” → прициньати pricinjáti, соправити sopráviti → сопраулати sopráulati. In speech, however, these types of imperfectives are becoming increasingly uncommon.

10.3.3.1 Без-

The prefix без- marks removal. Semantically, it is similar to English dis-, although in practice there is a rather low correspondence between the two. It becomes бес- bes- before voiceless consonants. While it does occasionally occur on its own, it is by far more common in the compound form обез- obez-, where the о- reinforces the transformative sense of без-. Most of the verbs that take plain без- take обез- in the perfective.

Examples:

• безвѣровати bezvěrováti “cause smby to lose faith in” (← вѣрити vě́riti “believe”)
• безоружити bezoruźíti “disarm” (← оружия orúźija “weaponry”)
• бесстрашовати besstraśováti “insure” (← страшити stráśiti “frighten”)

10.3.3.2 Во-

The prefix во- marks some sort of movement or action into something else, and is comparable to English in-. It becomes в- v- before stems beginning with a vowel, and occasionally in other situations as well (see Section 10.3.3.19).

Examples:

• вокражити vokráźiti “encircle” (← краге kráge “circle”)
• войсти vóisti “walk in[to]” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• влѣти vlě́ti “instil” (← лѣти lě́ti “pour”)

10.3.3.3 Вуи-

The basic meaning of the prefix вуи- is “out of”, and it is the opposite of во-. However, metaphorical extensions of this meaning are very common; for example, вуи- may also refer to any sort of distribution from one source to many, revelations/sharing of information, or the fulfilment of a difficult action. This wide array of meanings makes it hard to compare to any English constructions; the closest analogy is probably to be found in phrasal verbs with “out”.

Examples:

• вуийсти vuíjsti “exit, walk out” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• вуижити vuiźíti “survive, live out” (← жити źíti “live”)
• вуикриѕати vuikridzáti “shout out” (← криѕати kridzáti “shout”)
• вуидати vuidáti “issue, give out” (← дати dáti “give”)
• вуилѣти vuilě́ti “pour out, empty” (← лѣти lě́ti “pour”)
• вуипуидати vuipuidáti “demand” (← пуидати puidáti “ask”)
• вуитуорити vuituóriti “produce, manufacture” (← туорити tuoríti “create”)
• вуибрати vuibráti “choose, pick out” (← брати bráti “take, bring”)

10.3.3.4 До-

The prefix до- means “up to/reaching” or “additional”.

Examples:

• доцидати docidáti “read up to” (← цидати cidáti “read”)
• доѣхати doiě́hati “go up to/as far as [a place]” (← ѣхати iě́hati “go by vehicle”)
• догрѣти dogrě́ti “heat up [to]” (← грѣти grě́ti “heat”)
• довѣсти dově́sti “understand” (← вѣсти vě́sti “know”)
• додати dodáti “add, tack onto” (← дати dáti “give”)

While the sense of “additional” is undeniably derivational, many believe the former sense of “up to/reaching” has become grammaticalized. For example, the prefix до- is virtually required on the verb whenever the preposition до “up to” is present in the same sentence, and this can be done freely with any verb. This function is sometimes known as the “telic prefix”, which will be discussed further in Section 11.15.

10.3.3.5 За-

The prefix за- is hard to describe. It covers a wide array of meanings that are often contradictory, and the exact role it plays in the historical derivation of many verbs is no longer clear. This is part of why за- has become one of the most common simple perfectivizing suffixes with no lexical content of its own. The four most common senses, however, are: inchoateness/beginning an action (and by extension causatives in general); movement or action behind something; some sort of exchange or action that occurs with clear benefit to the subject; and an action done quickly, often viewed as not being quite as thorough as the base action it was derived from. In addition, with verbs of motion, it indicates performing an action while in the process of doing something else (e.g., “stop by [while on the way to...]”, “drop off [while on the way to...]”, etc.).

Examples:

• зайсти záisti “stop by, drop by” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• зашинати zaśináti “fall asleep” (← спати spáti “sleep”)
• затемнѣти zatemně́ti “darken suddenly” (← темнѣти temně́ti “become dark”)
• забоити zabójiti “conquer, take in battle” (← бое bóie “battle”)
• закрити zakríti “veil, screen” (← крити kríti “cover”)
• запизати zapizáti “note” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• залежити zaleźíti “establish” (← лежити leźiti “lie [down]”)
• забуити zabuíti “forget” (← буити buíti “be”)

10.3.3.6 На-

The prefix на- generally indicates action on or onto something. When in the middle voice, it may indicate an action completed to exhaustion.

Examples:

• найсти náisti “come upon, find” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• наѣстиш naiě́stiś “eat one’s fill” (← ѣсти iě́sti “eat”)
• надумати nadúmati “think over” (← думати dúmati “ponder”)
• наработатиш narabótatiś “have done a lot of work” (← работати rabótati “work”)
• настубати nastubáti “step on, tread on” (← стубати stubáti “step”)

10.3.3.7 Над-

The prefix над- means “over”. Before bases beginning with plosives, it lenites to наз- naz-.

Examples:

• наздати nazdáti “increase” (← дати dáti “give”)
• назпизати nazpizáti “write over, superscribe” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• надсуѣдати nadsuědáti “suggest as an alternative” (← суѣдати suědáti “suggest”)
• назтемнѣти naztemně́ti “eclipse, overshadow” (← темнѣти temně́ti “become dark”)

10.3.3.8 О-

The prefix о- is the result of the merger of two older prefixes. One marked simple transformations, and so is very common with deadjectival and denominal bases, as well as “around” or “about”. The other suggests movement away from something.

Examples:

• обрати obráti “take away” (← брати bráti “bring, take”)
• одужити oduźíti “kill (poet.)” (← духе dúhe “breath”)
• овелицити ovelíciti “increase, enlarge” (← велике velíke “great”)
• овратити ovrátiti “turn, rotate” (← вратити vrátiti “return, turn back”)
• ознати oznáti “acknowledge” (← знати znáti “recognize”)
• опизати opizáti “describe” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• ойсти óisti “leave” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)

10.3.3.9 От-

The prefix от-, which becomes ос- before bases beginning with a plosive, indicates movement away, much like о-. However, о- suggests movement out of sight, while от- suggests movement just a short distance away, while remaining in sight ⁸ . It also frequently indicates physical removal (and thus is more literal than без-), a mistake in performing an action, or the undoing or reciprocation of an action performed by another party.

Examples:

• осдати osdáti “answer, respond” (← дати dáti “give”)
• отѣйграти otěigráti “win back” (← еграти iegráti “play”)
• осцидати oscidáti “misread” (← цидати cidáti “read”)
• отлежити otleźíti “set aside” (← лежити leźíti “lie down”)
• отношити otnóśiti “carry off, deliver” (← ношити nóśiti “carry”)
• отрѣзати otrězáti “cut off [from]” (← рѣзати rězáti “cut”)

10.3.3.10 Па-

The prefix па- has a variety of different meanings. It originally spread to verbs via denominals; in early Common Slavic the nominal prefix па- was more or less considered a variant of по-. In these original verbs derived from nouns, the function of па- can be very opaque. However, over time it developed a sense of insufficiency or absence in nouns (see Section 10.3.1.12), and this sense spread to verbs. As a result, most productive use of the verbal prefix па- nowadays indicates insufficiency. There is a strong tendency to stress the prefix.

Examples:

• пагубити págubiti “ruin” (← губити gubíti “destroy”)
• пажити páźiti “pasture” (← жити źíti “live”)
• пакормити pákormiti “underfeed” (← кормити kórmiti “feed”)

10.3.3.11 По-

By far the most common meaning of по- is “for a while”; that is, it indicates durative aspect. This is a highly productive process, as it can be applied to virtually any verb. A secondary sense, far less common, is as an inchoative.

Examples:

• поговорити pogovoríti “talk for a bit” (← говорити govoríti “talk”)
• побуити pobuíti “stay for some time” (← буити buíti “be”)
• полубити polubíti “fall in love” (← лубити lubíti “love”)

10.3.3.12 Под-

The basic meaning of под- is “under” or “from under”. However, it has acquired a number of metaphorical extensions of this original sense. It can indicate approach to another person (not an object), or it can weaken the sense of a verb. It can also be used as a generic prefix of politeness when attached to verbs of human interaction. Before bases beginning with a plosive, the prefix becomes поз- poz-.

Examples:

• позпизати pozpizáti “sign” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• подмотрѣти podmótrěti “spy on” (← мотрѣти mótrěti “watch”)
• подѣскоцити poděskóciti “jump out” (← скоцити skóciti “jump”)
• подрѣѕити podrědzíti “say [please]” (← рѣѕити rědzíti “say”)
• подѣгрѣти poděgrě́ti “warm up a little bit” (← грѣти grě́ti “heat up”)
• подѣйсти póděisti “walk up to” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• подсушити podsúśiti “dry a little” (← сушити súśiti “dry”)

10.3.3.13 Пре-

The prefix пре- has five primary senses. The original is physical action across something. It can also indicate repetition, thoroughness, reciprocation, and excess.

Examples:

• предумати predúmati “think over, ponder” (← думати dúmati “muse”)
• предати predáti “transmit, broadcast” (← дати dáti “give”)
• премирити premíriti “cease fire” (← мире míre “peace”)
• преговорити pregovoríti “hold talks” (← говорити govoríti “talk”)
• премотрѣти premótrěti “revise, reconsider” (← мотрѣти mótrěti “watch”)
• премѣстити preměstíti “relocate, move” (← мѣсто mě́sto “place”)
• препизати prepizáti “rewrite” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• препизатиш prepizátiś “correspond, write one another” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• престубити prestubíti “infringe, violate” (← стубати stubáti “step” [i.e., overstep])
• прегрѣти pregrě́ti “overheat” (← грѣти grě́ti “heat up”)

10.3.3.14 Пред-

The prefix пред- means “before” or “in front”. It lenites to през- prez- before bases beginning with a plosive.

Examples:

• предвидѣти predvíděti “foresee” (← видѣти víděti “see”)
• предсудити predsudíti “prejudge” (← судити sudíti “judge”)
• предрѣѕити predrědzíti “foretell, predict” (← рѣѕити rědzíti “say”)

10.3.3.15 При-

The prefix при- conveys a variety of meanings all denoting some sort of closeness. It often indicates motion toward, arrival, preparation, invitation, appearance of emotions or ideas, and attentiveness.

Examples:

• прийсти príjsti “arrive, approach” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• применѣти primeně́ti “remember, recall” (← менѣти meně́ti “seem, suppose”)
• придумати pridúmati “think up” (← думати dúmati “muse”)
• привезати privezáti “tie to” (← везати vezáti “tie”)
• призуати prizuáti “invite” (← зуати zuáti “call”)
• припозобити pripozóbiti “adjust for, adapt to” (← позоба pozóba “means, method”)
• прислухѣти prislúhěti “listen attentively” (← слухѣти slúhěti “listen”)
• прийграти prijgráti “join a game” (← еграти iegráti “play”)

10.3.3.16 Про-

The prefix про- primarily indicates motion through or past something. In addition, it may indicate a somewhat haphazard or not entirely focused action, especially one that results in some sort of error or mistake.

Examples:

• пройсти próisti “go through; go past” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• пропизати propizáti “jot down” (← пизати pizáti “write”)
• прослухѣти proslúhěti “not catch someone’s words” (← слухѣти slúhěti “listen”)
• прожити proźíti “live through” (← жити źíti “live”)
• пролѣти prolě́ti “spill” (← лѣти lě́ti “pour”)

10.3.3.17 Роз-

The prefix роз- indicates separation or distribution. It may also indicate an action is completely out of control. Before bases beginning with an unvoiced consonant, it becomes ros-.

Examples:

• роздати rozdáti “distribute” (← дати dáti “give”)
• розлѣти rozlě́ti “flood” (← лѣти lě́ti “pour”)
• розиѣсти roziě́sti “erode, eat away at” (← ѣсти iě́sti “eat”)
• розбрати rozbráti “take apart, examine” (← брати bráti “bring, take”)
• росуити rosuíti “unwind, evolve” (← вити víti “twist”)
• розѣйсти rózěisti “part ways” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)

10.3.3.18 Со-

The prefix со- indicates joining many things together (the opposite of роз-), getting off of or down from something (and occasionally removal), or an exhaustive action.

Examples:

• собрати sobráti “gather” (← брати bráti “bring, take”)
• сойсти sóisti “get off” (← исти ísti “go, walk”)
• снести snésti “bring down” (← нести nésti “carry”)
• сократити sokrátiti “cut short” (← кратити krátiti “shorten”)
• сожитиш soźítiś “get accustomed to” (← жити źíti “live”)
• совинити soviníti “forgive, pardon” (← винити viníti “blame”)
• согорѣти sogorě́ti “burn out, go out” (← горѣти gorě́ti “burn, glow”)

10.3.3.19 Notes on Formation

The interaction of the prefixes в(о)- v(o)- and с(о)- s(o)- with the verb root can be somewhat complex at times. Generally, the preferred prefixes are the vocalic forms во- and со-. However, before /l/ (and usually before /m n/, and irregularly before /r/), the vowel will drop: во + ливати → вливати vliváti “pour in, instil”. Before /β/, the realization depends on stress. If the first syllable of the verb root is unstressed, then the vocalic prefixes are used: со + винити → совинити soviníti “pardon”. If the first syllable of the verb root is stressed, then the vowel is dropped and the /β/ elides to /w/: со + вити → суити suíti “twist”.

However, when deverbalized, the vowel may reappear even though it is absent in the verb: вложити vlóźiti “invest” → вологе vóloge “investment”. Sometimes both vowelless and vowelled derivatives exist with different semantics.

With the exception of в(о)- and с(о)-, the standard epenthetic vowel used with verbal prefixes is -ѣ-. This occurs, for instance, when a prefix ending with a consonant is applied to a base that begins with a consonant cluster. There are also certain verb stems beginning with /i/ or /(j)e/ that reduce to /j/ when any prefix is added, which will then require this additional -ѣ-: исти ísti “go, walk” → подѣйсти póděisti “walk up to”.

10.4 Compounds

Novegradian has two kinds of compounds—linked and unlinked, referring to whether or not there is a ‘linking morpheme’. Both are very common, although the ‘linked’ form is used more often in recent constructs.

10.4.1 Unlinked Compounds

Unlinked compounds for the most part are limited to adverbs and conjunctions. Nouns and adjectives are rarely formed with unlinked compounds, with the exception of compounds incorporating a numeral as the first element.

Taking a number in its genitive form and attaching it to an adjective or noun is a common method of substantive creation: довуногате dòvunogáte “bipedal”, дешитанлико dèśitángliko “decagon”, полувѣке pòluvě́ke “half-century”.

Many modern adverbs come from historical compounds, where what was originally a phrase became fused into a single unit:

• вноу vnóu “again” ← во “in” + нов(е) “new”
• воврехѣ vovréhě “[located] above” ← во “in” + врехѣ “top (loc)”
• вонизѣ vonízě “[located] below” ← во “in” + низѣ “bottom (loc)”
• слѣва slě́va “from the left” ← со “from” + лѣва “left (gen)”
• коправом koprávom “toward the right” ← ко “toward” + правом “right (datins)”
• хоиж hójiź “who (emph)” ← хой “who” + же (an emphatic particle)
• шеден śedén “today” ← ше “this” + ден “day (acc)”
• занок zánok ← за “behind” + нокьи “night”
• вецераш véceraś “yesterday” ← вецера “evening (gen)” + ш(ево) “this”

10.4.2 Linked Compounds

Linked compounds feature a fill vowel, most commonly /o/, separating the two components of the compound. If the second element begins with a vowel, the fill vowel may be dropped; this is optional, but generally preferred.

When the second element is a verb, but the compound itself is not, the verb will appear as just the root alone.