Adjectival Morphology

6.1 Definitions and Features

The Novegradian adjective is quite similar to the noun, and historically is closely related. Like nouns, they decline for gender and number, though unlike nouns they do so in order to agree with their head. They also decline for agreement in gender in the singular, though not in the plural (and adjectives do not inflect for the dual). Adjective endings are very similar, though not identical, to the endings of various nominal declensions—masculine singular like the masculine fourth declension singular, neuter singular like the neuter third declension singular, feminine singular like the first declension singular, and plural like the fourth declension plural.

Adjectives declension also features “definiteness”, a two-way distinction between “indefinite” (or “non-topical”) and “definite” (or “topical”) forms. The indefinite adjectives have the noun-like declension, while the definite adjectives have more of a pronoun-like declension, historically having originated from the indefinite forms plus the Proto-Slavic anaphoric pronoun *j-.

Another uniquely adjectival quality is known as “degree”, which specifies the intensity of the meaning of the adjective. There are two primary degrees, known as “absolute” (the base form) and “comparative” (meaning ‘more X’); and four secondary degrees whose morphological marking is for the most part optional: superlative, intensive, excessive, and trial superlative.

6.2 Regular Adjective Declension

Novegradian adjectives must agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case. The same endings are used for all adjectives, as there aren’t multiple declensions. The genders all coalesce in the plural ¹ . Demonstrated with цервене cérvene “red” (singular on the left, plural on the right):

As with nouns, there are also count forms, which are identical to the genitive singular series:

The endings as a whole are very similar to the nominal endings, as they were in both Common Slavic and Proto-Indo-European (though note, for instance, the partitive singular in -a, not -ok/-ek). The stress also never shifts. If the adjective stem ends in a cluster, an epenthetic /o/ will be inserted in the gen.pl as in the nominal declension. The w+consonant rule seen in nouns also applies here: nom.sg.masc глауне gláune “important” → gen.pl глаун gláun [ˈgla.won] (dialectical главон).

If the noun an adjective modifies is animate and the direct object of a sentence, the genitive case form of the adjective must be used, since the noun will also be in the genitive.

As with the past tense of verbs (which is participial and therefore adjectival in origin), there also exists a Neuter II form in the nominative and accusative, whereby an adjective modifying a neuter noun in /e/ will take the ending -ѐ -e rather than -о -o: цервенѐ соунце cérvene sóunce “a red sun”.

6.3 Definite Adjective Declension

The definite adjectives are derived from the Common Slavic definites, historically formed by attaching the declined anaphoric pronoun *-j- to the end of the “indefinite” forms, those shown in the chart above. Since the anaphoric pronoun was in origin a demonstrative, it had the effect of strengthening the adjective and serving as a sort of ‘pointer’ to single a certain noun out of a group. The distinction between definite and indefinite adjectives was lost in most other Slavic languages, except in East Slavic, where both forms were preserved but with wholly different functions. The definite adjective still survives with something close to its original function in the Baltic languages and in North Slavic. In Novegradian, they have also become entwined with the topicalization system.

The definite count forms are as follows:

The inanimate accusative masculine singular ending -ий is phonetically [əj].

There are two stress patterns seen in definite adjectives. The first (and more common) is known as the antepenultimate system, like цервене above, where:

• In the masculine nominative singular and masculine inanimate accusative singular, the stress is on the same syllable as in its indefinite forms.
• In the genitive plural, it falls on the penult, as the ending -ih is a contraction of an earlier -ijih.
• In all other forms (including the genitive plural if the stem ends in a cluster), stress falls on the antepenultimate syllable.

The other system is ending-stress, where:

• In the masculine nominative singular and masculine inanimate accusative singular, the stress is on the same syllable as in its indefinite forms.
• In all other forms, the stress is on the first syllable of the ending.

Which adjectives use which pattern must be memorized. However, most adjectives that include the derivational suffix -ск- -sk- use ending-stress.

As the stress moves around, consonants may voice as they do with nouns: nom.sg.masc великей velíkei “great”, gen.sg.masc велигаево veligáievo.

There is no Neuter II form as seen in the indefinite forms: Цервеное море Cervénoie móre “the Red Sea”

The shifting stress can sometimes cause vowel changes as well, for historical reasons. This is usually the result of a former nasal vowel. Adjectives with a vowel change in their definite forms are always ending-stressed. The normal vowel (as seen in the indefinite forms) is kept in the nominative and accusative singular masculine, but changes in all other definite forms. One of the most common examples is крате kráte “steep”. When declined in the nominative case as a definite adjective, the forms are: кратей krátei, крудая krudáia, крудое krudóie, крудие krudíje.

Because there are so few adjectives with such a vowel change, there has been a tendency across the years to regularize them. In standard Novegradian the change in крате is required, but others, such as тежке téźke “heavy” → тижкая tiźkáia, are now rarely seen outside of poetry and highly formal registers. The regularized тежкая teźkáia has supplanted тижкая in the standard.

6.4 Comparatives

Novegradian, as with several other Slavic languages, only has a comparative degree of adjectives. A superlative can be formed, but it is generally not used unless the context cannot disambiguate the situation.

The comparative is typically formed with the suffix -ш- -ś- added immediately after the stem, plus a slight variant of the regular adjective endings (see below). This form has a variant -ейш- -eiś- used when the stem ends a consonant cluster. ²

• цервене cérvene “red” → цервенше cervénśe “redder”
• плоне plóne “full” → плонше plónśe “fuller”
• приглубе priglúbe “deep” → приглубше priglúbśe “deeper”
• интересне interésne “interesting” → интереснейше interesnéiśe “more interesting”
• остре óstre “sharp” → острейше ostréiśe “sharper”

There are a few cases where -ейш- -eiś- is used when the stem ends in a single consonant. This is common with monosyllabic roots ending in a labial or velar consonant:

• нове nóve “new” → новейше novéiśe “newer”
• праве práve “correct, proper” → правейше pravéiśe “more proper”
• вайке váike “difficult” → вайгейше vaigéiśe “more difficult” (note the voicing)

Monosyllabic roots ending in /s z t d/ as well as native Slavic roots ending in /k g x/ usually undergo palatalization to /ç ʝ c ɟ/ and /sʲ zʲ sʲ/ respectively instead of taking a full ending. If the palatalized consonant is intervocalic, proper pronunciation calls for a geminate consonant, though a single consonant is more common in unrestricted speech. This gemination is the result of the fusion of the -ш- ending with the palatalized consonant (so that вуихье vuíhje “higher”, for instance, continues an earlier */βwiçsʲe/).

• вуисе vuíse “high” → вуихье vuíhje “higher” (pronounced /ˈβwiçːe/ or /ˈβwiçe/)
• близе blíze “close” → блиғье blíğje “closer” (pronounced /ˈbliʝːe/ or /ˈbliʝe/)
• горде górde “proud” → горгье górgje “prouder” (pronounced /ˈgorɟe/)
• велике velíke “great” → велише velíśe “greater” (pronounced /βeˈlisʲːe/ or /βeˈlisʲe/)
• драге dráge “expensive” → драже dráze “more expensive” (pronounced /ˈdrazʲːe/ or /ˈdrazʲe/)

However, the suffix -к- seen with many adjectives inherited from Common Slavic drops in the comparative before the stem undergoes palatalization. If the consonant immediately before it is a fricative, it may convert back into a plosive before palatalizing, since the suffix that originally forced its lenition is now gone:

• вазке vázke (CS *ǫz-ъk-ъ) “narrow” → вағье váğje “narrower”
• глазке glázke (CS *glad-ъk-ъ) “smooth” → глагье glágje “smoother”
• леғке léğke (CS *leg-ъk-ъ) “easy, light” → леже léźe “easier”
• меғке méğke (CS *męg-ъk-ъ) “soft, mild” → меже méźe “softer”
• слазке slázke (CS *slad-ъk-ъ) “sweet” → слагье slágje “sweeter”

Final -st- palatalizes to /sʲc/:

• исте íste “true, genuine” → ишкье íśkje “more genuine”
• просте próste “simple” → прошкье próśkje “simpler”
• пусте púste “empty” → пушкье púśkje “emptier”

Polysyllabic stems ending in /β/ transform it to /w/; this is typical with the derivational suffixes -ив- -iv- and -ов- -ov-:

• годове godóve “ready” → годоуше godóuśe “more ready”
• лѣниве lěníve “lazy” → лѣниўше lěníwśe “lazier”

Adjectives ending in /nne/ (i.e., a root ending in /n/ followed by the derivational affix -n-) generally lose one /n/ and then add -ш-, rather than taking -ейш-. However, the geminate remains in spelling:

• кѣнне kě́nne “valuable” → кѣннше kě́nnśe “more valuable”
• оединне oiédinne “lonely” → оединнше oiedínnśe “lonelier”

The adjective пунтне púntne [ˈpun.ne] “exact, accurate” has the comparative form пунтше púntśe [ˈpun.sʲe]. While irregular in spelling, in pronunciation it is regular according to the above rule.

And there are some adjectives that are simply irregular, shown in the following table:

Comparative adjectives use the same endings as other adjectives, with one difference: any suffixes that begin with /o/ are changed to /e/, for both types of adjectives. The genitive epenthetic vowel also becomes /e/. Цервенше cervénśe, therefore, declines like this:

The suffix -ейш- -eiś- is almost always stressed; the only exceptions are when it is followed by a trisyllabic ending that forces the stress rightwards as per regular rules. Forms with -ш- -ś- are a little more unpredictable, sometimes retaining their original stress and sometimes shifting it right one syllable (although comparatives are always stem-stressed). Oftentimes these exist in free variation, with, for instance, both /ˈtser.βen.sʲe/ and /tser.ˈβen.sʲe/ being heard for цервенше.

6.5 Superlatives

A superlative may be made by attaching the prefix най- nai- to the comparative form: найвелише naivelíśe “greatest”, найболше naibólśe “largest”, найхуже naihúźe “worst”. When an adjective begins with a vowel, that vowel takes its iotafied form, though the й in the prefix is still redundantly written: авине “clear” → найяунше naiiáunśe.

This prefix is not mandatory to express superlatives; typically a bare comparative is used. The superlative prefix is used for emphasis or disambiguation when it is not clear whether a comparative or superlative meaning is intended.

6.6 Other Degrees and Prefixes

In addition to the comparative and superlative, Novegradian adjectives can mark two other degrees—the intensive and the excessive. Like the superlative, these are both prefixial and optional. However, unlike the superlative, their use is encouraged, as overuse of adverbs to express the same concept is considered poor style.

The prefix пре- pre- means “very”, and intensifies the quality already expressed by the adjective. It is attached to the absolute degree of the adjective (i.e., the base definite or indefinite form, never a comparative base) and is generally unstressed. On a few adjectives, it is almost required in place of seperate adverbials (e.g., прекрасне prekrásne “very beautiful”, almost never **велем красне vélem krásne).

The stressed prefix во- vó- means “too (much)”, and indicates excess. It is added to either the base form of an adjective or the comparative stem (but only if the comparative stem is formed by consonant mutation): воблизе vóblize / воблиғье vóbliğje “too close”.

If either prefix is added to an adjective beginning with a vowel, that vowel takes its iotafied form: преявине preiávine “very evident”. If they are added to an adjective that already has a lexical prefix with no functional load (e.g., приглубе priglúbe “deep”, since **глубе does not exist), the lexical prefix may drop in many cases: воглубе vóglube “too deep”, not *воприглубе *vópriglube.

There is one other adjective degree known as the “trial superlative”, formed by the prefix тре- tre-. It is frequently and productively used in literature and storytelling, but has very limited functionality elsewhere. In literature and liturgical contexts, it is used to indicate a superlative, though it also has connotations of great importance: тресуете tresuéte “thrice-holy, most holy”. It is also used hyperbolically, as in the common folkloric opening На Тредевитиех Жемлах, на Тредежитѣѣм Царестўѣ Na Tredevítijeh Źemláh, na Tredeźítěiěm Cárestuě “In the Thrice-Nine Lands, in the Thrice-Ten Tsardom”, used to refer to a far away land.