Verb Scale III: 'aktēb and 'ennuktāb

7.1 Introduction to 'aktēb Verbs

'Aktēb (Active Scale III) is commonly known as the “causative” stem. Its most common function, not surprisingly, is causative, and it typically converts transitive katab verbs into ditransitive ones: ακτήβ 'aktēb “dictate [something to someone]” (lit. 'cause to write'), αηακήλ 'ahakēl “feed [something to someone]” (lit. 'cause to eat'). It can have a causative meaning on verbs whose base form is intransitive, but this is less common: ασκήβ 'askēb “lay down” (lit. 'cause to lie down'). For some verbs, it may also have a factitive meaning (“to have something done by somone”), as in ου αμήτετ 'ū 'amētet “I had him killed” (from *mūt “die”), or an assistive meaning, as in ασλήτ 'aslēt “help someone win” (from *slāth “win, prevail over”).

'Aktēb is distinguished by its prefixed /ʔ/, although in some forms this elides and may change the quality of the vowels around it. In Semitic studies this form is often known as the '-Stem or Š-Stem (the latter for historical reasons).

7.2 Triconsonantal Roots and 'aktēb

7.2.1 The Present Tense

The 'aktēb present tense is quite easy to form. It simply requires adding personal prefixes and suffixes to the stems *-C₁C₂ēC₃ (when no suffix is present) or *-C₁C₂eC₃- (when there is a suffix present). The prefix vowel is always /ɑː/, the product of the original prefix vowels merging together with the causative *'a- prefix.

7.2.2 The Preterite Tense

The preterite tense is formed regularly by adding preterite suffixes to the stem *'aC₁C₂ēC₃-. C₃ lenition may take place in the second person.

7.2.3 The Imperfect Tense

The imperfect tense is formed by adding the imperfect suffixes to the stem *'aC₁C₂ieC₃-. C₃ lenition may take place in the first and second person forms.

7.2.4 The Perfective Subjunctive Tense

The perfective subjunctive is formed by adding a special set of prefixes to the stem *-C₁C₂eC₃. The prefixes used in 'aktēb are *vā- in the first person singular, *vanā- in the first person plural, *vatā- in the second person, and *vyā- in the third person.

7.2.5 The Imperative

The imperative usually takes the form *'aC₁C₂ēC₃ in the masculine singular, and *'aC₁C₂eC₃- + suffixes in the feminine singular and plural.

However, a handful of very common verbs preserve a different, older pattern. They form their imperative stems with the patterns *'isC₁eC₂ēC₃ (masculine singular) and *'isC₁eC₂C₃- (feminine singular and plural). This is especially common, for instance, with verbs of position such as ασκήβ 'askēb “lay down” (root *skīb “lie down”):

7.2.6 Deverbatives

The infinitive is formed using the pattern *māC₁C₂ēC₃ and the participle using māC₁C₂iC₃.

7.3 Biconsonantal Roots and 'aktēb

Biconsonantal roots lose their internal vowel in 'aktēb and replace it with /ɛː/, gained by analogy with other 'aktēb verbs. This *-C₁ēC₂- stem remains intact in all forms, except in the imperfect, which uses the stem *-C₁ieC₂-, and the active participle, which uses *-C₁ūC₂- instead ¹ .

The root *sāl “ask” may serve as an example, becoming 'asēl “lend” in 'aktēb. ²

The special s-imperative exists as well, as seen with the verb ακκήν 'akhēn “raise, set up” (*khūn “get up”):

7.4 Quadriconsonantal Roots and 'aktēb

Quadriconsonantal roots are allowed in 'aktēb, although they naturally have a different stem structure. The verb ακελκήλ 'akelkēl “ring (tr)” (root *kalkēl “ring (intr)”) will demonstrate.

In the present tense, the stem alternates between *-C₁eC₂C₃ēC₄ when there is no suffix and *-C₁eC₂C₃eC₄- when there is a suffix:

The preterite is based on the static stem *'aC₁eC₂C₃ēC₄-:

The imperfect tense uses the stem *'aC₁eC₂C₃ieC₄-:

The perfective subjunctive uses the stem *-C₁eC₂C₃eC₄:

The imperative stem is *'aC₁eC₂C₃ēC₄ in the masculine singular and *'aC₁eC₂C₃eC₄- in the feminine singular and plural. There are no quadriconsonantal roots with s-imperatives.

The infinitive of quadriconsonantal roots uses the pattern *māC₁eC₂C₃ēC₄ and the active participle uses *māC₁aC₂C₃iC₄:

7.5 Geminate Roots and 'aktēb

The behavior of geminate roots can be summarized with a simple rule: if the stem is followed by a suffix beginning with a vowel, it follows a biconsonantal pattern with gemination; otherwise (when word-final or followed by a consonant-initial suffix), it follows a triconsonantal pattern. The verb ασβήβ 'asbēb “cause, bring about” (root *sabb “turn”) will demonstrate:

7.6 Introduction to 'ennuktāb Verbs

The passive counterpart of 'aktēb is 'ennuktāb. It contains the internal vowel pattern u-a commonly seen in passive forms. It later acquired a prefixed n- by analogy with the passive scale I nuktāb. To make the initial *n' cluster more pronounceable, an epenthetic /e/ was introduced at the beginning of the word. Over time the original glottal stop marking the causative assimilated into the /n/. The evolution of this form was thus roughly: 'uktāb → n'uktāb → 'en'uktāb → 'ennuktāb.

The noun functioning as the direct object in 'aktēb is promoted to subject in 'ennuktāb. Therefore, the actual verb 'ennuktāb means “be dictated” and takes an animate object (e.g., “he was dictated a letter”).

7.7 Triconsonantal Roots and 'ennuktāb

7.7.1 The Present Tense

The present tense forms are created regularly by adding standard prefixes and suffixes to the stems *-nnuC₁C₂āC₃ (when no suffix is present) or *-nnuC₁C₂aC₃- (when there is a suffix present). All prefixes have the vowel /i/ other than the first person singular, which has /a/.

7.7.2 The Preterite Tense

The preterite tense features regular preterite suffixes added to the stem *'ennuC₁C₂āC₃-:

7.7.3 The Imperfect Tense

The imperfect tense is based on the stem *'ennuC₁C₂uoC₃- and uses suffixes containing the vowel /a/:

7.7.4 The Perfective Subjunctive Tense

The perfective subjunctive is formed by adding a special set of prefixes to the stem *-nnuktab. In the first person singular the prefix is *va-, in the first person plural *vani-, in the second person *vati-, and in the third person *vē-.

7.7.5 The Imperative

No imperative exists for 'ennuktāb.

7.7.6 Deverbatives

The infinitive uses the pattern *mannuC₁C₂āC₃ and the passive participles use *munnaC₁C₂aC₃.

7.8 Biconsonantal Roots and 'ennuktāb

Biconsonantal verbs lose their internal vowel, replacing it with /ɑː/ in the present, preterite, perfective subjunctive, and infinitive, /uo/ in the imperfect, and /uː/ in the passive participle. Demonstrated with εννυσώλ 'ennusāl “be lent”:

7.9 Quadriconsonantal Roots and 'ennuktāb

Quadriconsonantal roots are conjugated regularly using just three basic stems: *-nnuC₁aC₂C₃āC₄- in the present tense (unsuffixed), preterite, and infinitive, *-nnuC₁aC₂C₃aC₄- in the present tense (suffixed), perfective subjunctive, and passive participle, and *-nnuC₁aC₂C₃uoC₄- in the imperfect. With 'ennukalkāl “be rung”:

7.10 Geminate Roots and 'ennuktāb

Geminate roots in 'ennuktāb follow the same rule as in 'aktēb: if the stem is followed by a suffix beginning with a vowel, it follows a biconsonantal pattern with gemination; otherwise (when word-final or followed by a consonant-initial suffix), it follows a triconsonantal pattern. With εννυσβώβ 'ennusbāb “be caused, be brought about”:

7.11 Weak Roots in Scale III

7.11.1 C1 = Ř

Root-initial *Ř is completely regular. One example is the root *řlīb “milk” (cf. Scale I ρ̄άλαβ řalab “give milk”), giving the verbs αρ̄λήβ 'ařlēb “milk” and εννυρ̄λώβ 'ennuřlāb “be milked”.

7.11.2 C2 = Ř

Medial *Ř is also completely regular. Once example is the root *břāṯ “mix, agitate”, giving the verbs αβρ̄ήθ 'abřēṯ “anger” and εννυβρ̄ώθ 'ennubřāṯ “be angered”.

7.11.3 C3 = Ř

The effects of root-final *Ř are the same as in other scales, and only affect the feminine suffix *-ī in the present tense and imperative, and the vowels of the active participle. The root *ftāř “open” may serve as an example, giving the Scale III verbs αφτήρ̄ 'aftēř “have someone open, help open, open for business” and εννυφτώρ̄ 'ennuftāř “be opened for business”.

In the present tense of both 'aktēb and 'ennuktāb and the imperative of 'aktēb, the feminine marker *-ī is replaced by *ēyi, spelled -ηι: αφτερ̄ήι 'afteřēyi “have [someone] open! open [for business]! (f)” (not **'afteřī), ιννυφταρ̄ήι yinnuftařēyi “it (f) is being opened for business” (not **yinnuftařī).

In addition, the /i/ that immediately precedes C₃ in the active participle is lowered to /e/: μώατερ̄ māfteř “having open, opening for business” (not **māftiř).

7.11.4 C1 = '/H

Root-initial *' and *H both surface as consonantal /h/, with an epenthetic /a/ inserted immediately afterwards to prevent illegal clusters. Two common examples are the roots *'kāl “eat” and *hbād “work”, giving the Scale III verbs αηακήλ 'ahakēl “feed”, εννυηακώλ 'ennuhakāl “be fed”, αηαβήδ 'ahabēd “employ”, and εννυηαβώδ 'ennuhabād “be employed”: αηακιήλετ 'ahakielet “you (m) were being fed” (not **'a'kielet), αννυηαβώδ 'annuhabād “I am employed” (not **'annuhbād).

For the purposes of assigning stress, the epenthetic /a/ is ignored. Thus, the perfective subjunctive form в̄ατίννυηαβαδ vatinnuhabad “[that] you were employed” is stressed on the syllable *-tin- rather than *-nu-, even though the former is now four syllables from the end of the word.

7.11.5 C2 = '/H

Medial *' and *H assimilate into the preceding C₁, causing gemination or aspiration. The root *fhāl “make, do, use”, for instance, becomes αφφήλ 'affēl “turn on [a device, etc.], enforce [a rule, etc.]” and εννυφφώλ 'ennuffāl “be turned on, be enforced”. Shown below are the present and preterite of αφφήλ 'affēl:

7.11.6 C3 = '

As elsewhere, root-final *' behaves erratically. The root *ldā' “go up, rise” gives the verbs αλδή 'aldē “lift up, pull up” and εννυλδώ 'ennuldā “be lifted up, be pulled up”.

In the present tense, the glottal stop drops when word-final and is present elsewhere:

The preterite features the special set of aspirated suffixes rather than the normal set. The glottal stop disappears in all forms other than the third person singular feminine and third person plural. Additional contraction takes place in the first person singular:

In the imperfect the glottal stop also drops in all forms other than the third person singular feminine and third person plural. The sequences -ie'e- ('aktēb) and -uo'a- ('ennuktāb) contract to just -ie- and -uo-. The second person plural forms continue to use an aspirated ending.

The glottal stop simply drops in the perfective subjunctive:

The typical imperative works as expected: the glottal stop drops in the masculine singular (when word-final), and remains in the other forms. In the s-imperative, the glottal stop drops in all forms and causes C₂ gemination/aspiration in the feminine singular and plural forms:

The deverbatives simply lose the glottal stop:

7.11.7 C3 = H

Roots with final *H lose this radical and conjugate as though they were biconsonantal. The root *mnāh “forbid”, for instance, behaves as though it were *mVn (the vowel is unrecoverable), giving the verbs αμήν 'amēn “contest, dispute” and εννυμών 'ennumān “be contested, be disputed”. These then follow a regular biconsonantal paradigm.

7.11.8 C1 = Y/W

Initial *Y and *W simply merge into the preceding vowel according to some relatively straightforward rules:

• *ay → ē, *aw → ū
• *uy → ū, *uw → ū
• *āy → ā, *āw → ā

This applies for roots such as *ymīn “right”, yielding the verbs ημήν 'ēmēn “direct to the right” and εννουμών 'ennūmān “be directed to the right”, and *wtīr “stay, remain”, yielding ουτήρ 'ūtēr “have left over” and εννουτώρ 'ennūtār “remain left over, be in excess”. The following tables show the present tense and preterite of the two active verbs (though *ymīn has root final *N in addition, resulting in irregular preterite endings):

7.11.9 C3 = Y/W

Root-final *Y and *W are simpler to conjugate in Scale III than in Scales I or II. These consonants are preserved when intervocalic, and are lost in all other positions with no change to neighboring vowels. Consider, for instance, the preterite tense forms of the verbs αβνή 'abnē “have build, help build” (*bnāy “build”) and αμνή 'amnē “have count, help count” (*mnāw “count”):

The one exception to this pattern are the participles. In the active 'aktēb participle, both *Y and *W drop with compensatory lengthening: μώβνει mābnī “having build”, μώμνει māmnī “having count” (not **mābniy, **māmniw). In the passive 'ennuktāb participle, monophthongization takes place: μύνναβνη munnabnē “being made to build”, μύνναμνού munnamnū “being made to count” (not **munnabnay, **munnamnaw). Note that the new long vowels do not draw the stress.

7.11.10 C1/C2/C3 = N

Roots with initial *N (as in *nkīr “recognize”, giving ακκήρ 'əkhēr “introduce” and εννακκώρ 'ennəkhār “be introduced”) undergo assimilation in all forms, with C₂ being geminated or aspirated. They are otherwise regular, although if aspiration appears, it will be accompanied by vowel reduction.

Roots with medial *N (as in *knās “gather”, giving ακνής 'aknēs “insert” and εννυκνώς 'ennuknās “be inserted” ³ ) are regular.

Root-final *N is irregular only in the two past tenses, where assimilation takes place in a number of forms. With the root *šfān “cover” we get the verbs ασ̄φήν 'ašfēn “tell a secret, make someone swear to secrecy” and εννυσ̄φών 'ennušfān “swear to secrecy”:

7.11.11 C1 = PH/TH/KH/TSH/ČH

Roots with initial aspirates are largely unproblematic. Since C₁ is always in a cluster, it will always surface in an unaspirated state. The only difference between this and the regular paradigms is that any short vowel immediately preceding C₁ will reduce to /ə/; in 'aktēb this is not even noticeable orthographically, though the reduction is clear in 'ennuktāb. One such root is *thrād, yielding the Scale III verbs ατρήδ 'ətrēd “send quickly” and εννατρώδ 'ennətrād “be sent quickly”.

7.11.12 C2 = PH/TH/KH/TSH/ČH

Root-internal aspirates are completely regular, always surface in an unaspirated form, and never show any vowel reduction. For instance, the root *lkhīn “kiss” becomes αλκήν 'alkēn “touch [something to something], place in contact” and εννυλκών 'ennulkān “be touched [to], be placed in contact, lie tangent to”.

7.11.13 C3 = PH/TH/KH/TSH/ČH

The one aspirate subclass that is particularly irregular in Scale III are the C₃ aspirates, although this irregularity is the same as in other scales. The aspiration will only surface when intervocal, short vowels immediately preceding C₃ will reduce to schwa, and the preterite and imperfect use the special set of aspirated endings, plus an epenthetic schwa in some of the second person forms. The chart below demonstrates the conjugation of the two derivatives of the root *ǧrīkh “sink”, namely αγ̄ρήκ 'aǧrēk “submerge, immerse, dunk” and εννυγ̄ρώκ 'ennuǧrāk “be submerged, immersed”.